EXTENT OF SOCIAL MOBILITY
Several irregular or mixed castes are
mentioned in the Kharmasastras as coming into
existence as a result of the anuloma and
pratiloma connections, especially the latter.
Some of the latter types of castes are the antyaja
or lowest castes. The later Vedic Literature
mentions about eight mixed castes besides the
four regular varnas. Vasistha raises their number
to ten, Budhayana to fifteen, Gaulama to
eighteen, Manu to about sixty, but the same
mixed origin is not given to the same caste in all
the texts. The Brahmavaivarty Parana, a work
of the early medieval period, raises the number
of the mixed castes to over one hundred.
However, the above theory only partly
explains the proliferation of castes (jatis). Instead,
it seems to be an afterthought provide place for
the numerous tribal peoples in the fourfold. It is
obvious that the Nisadas, Ambasthas, and
Pulkasas, were originally tribal communities, but
once they were admitted into the Brahmanical
society, ingenious origins within the framework
of the varna system were suggested for them,
and here, the fuction of mixed castes of
varnasamkara came in handy,
The first systematic attempt at describing the
samskaras is found in the Grihyasutras. The
number of samkaras in the Grihyasutras fluctuate
between twelve and eighteen. In course of time,
sixteen became the classical number comprising
the following:
1. Garbhadhana (conception),
2. Pumsavana (engendering a male issue),
3. Simantonnayan (parting the hair),
4. jatakaramn (natal rites), and severing
of navel string
5. Namakarana (naming)
6. Nishdramana (first outing),
7. Chudakarana (tonsure),
8. Darnavedha (piercing the ear lobes),
9. Vidyarambha or akshararambha
(learning the alphabet),
10. Upanayan (holy thread ceremony and
choosing the child’s teacher),
11. Vedarambha (first study of the Vedas)
12. Kesanta (cutting the hair),
13. Samavartana (graduation and returning
home after completing education),
14. Vivaha (marriage), and
15. Antyesti (Funeral).
Most of the Dharmasastras mention eight
forms of marriage, of which the first four are
approved forms and the last four unapproved
forms are brahma, prajapatya, daiva and arsa.
The distinction between the brahma and
prajapataya forms of marriage is not all that
clear in both these forms, marriage was
performed according to the prescribed religious
ceremonies. In the daiva form the bride was given
in marriage to a priest, who officiated at a
sacrifice. In the arsa form, the marriage
ceremony was duly performed, but a part of the
ceremony was the presentation of a bull and a
cow by the bridegroom to the bride-price.’
The last four unapproved forms of marriage
are asura, paisacha, rakshasa and gandharva.
Asura vivaha or marriage was marriage by
purchese. In the paisacha form of marriage, the
bride was abducted in an unfair manner. The
rakshasa vivaha was marriage by capture. The
gandharva vivaha was a love marriage.
The four approved forms of vivahas were
generally meant for the three lower varnas of
Kshatriyas, Vaishya and Sudra. Within these, the
rakshasa and gandharva forms are permissible
especially for the kshatriyas. The Asura vivaha
in considered to be universal in ancient times.
But it is condemned by the Dharmasastras in
strong terms, probably because of its connection
with the lower vanas. The paisacha vivaha is
the worst of all marriages-Baudhayana
prescribes it for the Vaishyas and Sudras. This is
also corroborated by Manu. These prescriptions
were probably intended to validate the mariiage
practices of those tribes who were absorbed as
two lower varnas in ancient society. The
rakshasa form is prescribed by Manu for the
kshatriyas. Gandharva Vivaha, confined by some
to only the kashtriyas, was probably followed
by men and women of the other varnas as well.
This can be inferred from the rules laid down in
the Dharmasastras as well numerous examples
found in the general Ieterary works.
Though there is neither literary nor
epigraphic evidence about the practice of wide
remarriage in ancient India, it was probably
practiced particularly by the lower varmas. A
passage of Manu states that it cannot take place
among the Brahmins, which implies that it can
take place among the three other varmas.
Niyoga (levirate) was certainly practiced by
the Sudras in the early centuries of the Christian
era, which infact strengthens aur presumption
about the existence of widow remarriage among
the lower varnas.
